Indian Philosophy: a brief introduction

Human life abounds with various types of uncertainties and challenges. Like other creatures, man constantly struggles for the preservation and prosperity of his existence. However, unlike others, he can intellectually understand the hardships in his life and solve them logically. Since the beginning of human civilisation, enlightened man has been conceptualising and propounding the concepts of self-consciousness, the world’s origin, the cycle of life and death, etc. This article offers a brief introduction to Indian Philosophy.

There are many similarities between Indian philosophy and Western philosophy. Yet, there is a difference in their approaches to various subjects and solutions to related problems. Like Western philosophy, Indian philosophy discusses multiple subjects related to metaphysics, ethics, logic, psychology, and epistemology. However, unlike Western philosophy, it is not just theoretical and intellectual but an ideal way of living life and attaining freedom from suffering.

Classification of Indian Philosophy

The Vedas have played a significant role in the emergence and development of Indian philosophy. Indian philosophy is mainly classified into two groups—āstika and nāstika. In this context, āstika/nāstika means one who believes/does not believe in the authority of the Vedas. Vedānta, Mīmāṁsā, Sāṁkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, and Vaiśeṣika belong to the āstika group, while Bauddha, Jaina, and Cārvāka are part of the nāstika group. The following paragraphs discuss these briefly.

Indian Philosophy: āstika group

Mīmāṁsā

The foundational text of mīmāṁsā, also called Pūrva Mīmāṁsā, is Maharṣi Jaimini’s Mīmāṁsā Sūtra. It describes Yajñas and the use of Maṁtras in them. According to Mīmāṁsā, doing what the Vedas have prescribed and not doing what’s forbidden is Dharma. The Mīmāṁsakas argue that only Karma (action) causes Phala (outcome). Hence, they do not believe in any supreme being.

Vedānta

Vedānta, meaning ‘the end of the Vedas’, is based on the Upaniṣadas. The Upaniṣadas comprise the last part of the Vedic literature and are considered the essence of the Vedic literature. It is also known as Uttara Mīmāṁsā. There are three major branches of Vedānta: Advaita Vedānta (Ādi Śaṁkarācārya), Viśiṣṭa Advaita Vedānta (Rāmānujācārya) and Dvaita Vedānta (Mādhavācārya). The philosophy of Advaita Vedānta (non-duality) argues that there is only one ultimate reality called Brahman and that the world as we see it is māyā (illusion). Liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering is called Mokṣa. Viśiṣṭa Advaita Vedānta (special non-duality) differs from Advaita Vedānta about the attributes of Brahman while agreeing about the principle of non-duality. Dvaita Vedānta (duality) considers the Atman (soul) distinct from Brahman but dependent on the latter.

Sāṁkhya

Sāṁkhya, founded by Maharṣi Kapila, is a dualistic philosophy. It describes two independent elements – Puruṣa and Prakṛti. The first element, Puruṣa (consciousness), is distinct from the body, senses, mind, intellect, etc. The second element, Prakṛti (matter), lacks consciousness and is the source of creation. As per Sāṁkhya, Kaivalya, i.e. liberation, is the ultimate goal of life. Sāṁkhya philosophy believes in the principle of Satkāryavāda at the root of the evolution of nature. In Sāṁkhya philosophy, God doesn’t exist, and Prakṛti alone is the creator of the universe.

Yoga

Maharṣi Pataṃjali founded the Yoga philosophy, which aims to show humans the path to salvation. Like Sāṁkhya, Yoga is dualistic and based on the metaphysics propounded by Sāṁkhya. The main difference between the two is that Yoga accepts the existence of God. Although Puruṣa and Prakṛti are independent, Puruṣa is supreme and the main focus of Yoga.

Nyāya

Nyāya philosophy, founded by Maharṣi Gautama, is a system of logic and epistemology. In the words of Maharṣi Vātsyāyana – pramāṇairthaparīkṣaṇaṃ nyāyaḥ, that is, testing the artha (Siddhānta/theory) through pramāṇa (proof or means of knowledge) is nyāya. Nyāya philosophy accepts four types of pramāṇa – pratyakṣa (knowledge obtained from the senses), anumāna (knowledge based on pratyakṣa and logic), upamāna (knowledge based on analogy) and śabda (sermons of the sages). According to Nyāya philosophy, a formless and omnipresent God is the creator. Mokṣa liberates the ātman from the bondage of body and senses.

Vaiśeṣika

Maharṣi Kaṇāda (Ulūka) is the founder of the Vaiśeṣika philosophy. According to him, the physical world comprises microscopic particles called paramāṇu (atom). This philosophy accepts only two types of pramāṇa — pratyakṣa and anumāna. Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika espouse similar views regarding God and the attainment of mokṣa.

Indian Philosophy: nāstika group

Bauddha

Siddhārtha Gautama (Gautama Buddha) is the founder of this philosophy. According to Bauddha/Buddhist philosophy, the four ārya satya (noble truths) are as follows: 1. dukkha/duḥkha (suffering), 2. samudāya (the origin of suffering), 3. nirodha (the cessation of suffering), and 4. magga/mārga (the path to the cessation of suffering). The eightfold path (Ariya-aṭṭhaṅgika-magga or āryāṣṭāṅgikamārga) to the cessation of suffering consists of samyak-dṛṣṭi (proper views), samyak-saṃkalpa (proper aspiration), samyak-vāṇī (proper speech), samyak-karma (proper conduct), samyak-ājīva (proper living), samyak-vyāyāma (proper effort), samyak-smṛti (proper thought) and samyak-samādhi (proper concentration).

The paṃcaśīla (five virtues) consist of ahiṃsā (non-violence), asteya (non-stealing), satyabhāṣaṇa (truthfulness), brahmacarya (celibacy) and aparigraha (non-indulgence). The three basic tenets of Bauddha/Buddhist philosophy are anīśvaravāda (non-existence of God), anātmavāda (non-existence of ātman) and kṣaṇikavāda (transience). However, it accepts the principles of Karma, Nirvāṇa, Mokṣa and Punarjanma (rebirth).

Jaina

Jaina philosophy is based on the teachings of 24 tīrthaṃkaras – the first one being ṛṣabhadeva and vardhamāna (mahāvīra) being the last one. This philosophy accepts three types of pramāṇa — pratyakṣa, anumāna and śabda. In Jaina philosophy, Kevalajñāna/Kaivalya is the state of supreme knowledge. One who has attained Kaivalya, also known as Kevalin, can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations, while others are only capable of partial knowledge. According to Jainism, Karma has inevitable consequences, and no divine grace can save a person from reaping what he has sown.

Cārvāka

Cārvāka philosophy is purely materialistic and accepts only pratyakṣa as valid pramāṇa. It does not accept anumāna, upamāna and śabda. As per Cārvāka philosophy, obtaining reliable knowledge is possible only through the five senses. There is no existence beyond the senses; hence, God, soul, mokṣa, svarga (heaven), etc. do not exist. The accidental combination of physical elements – air, water, fire and earth, has created the world and consciousness. Death of the body is the ultimate end of life, and there is no rebirth. Also, according to Cārvāka philosophy, the goal of life is to attain maximum sensual pleasure, and it criticises the conceptions and rituals of other philosophies.

Common traits of all branches of Indian Philosophy

Despite the diversity of Indian philosophy’s belief systems, they have some common traits. The quest for objective knowledge and a penchant for virtuous conduct are viewed as the ideal way of life. Most of them emphasise the impact of man’s Karma on the prospects of happiness or lack thereof. Additionally, the tendency to view suffering as an inevitable part of existence is a notable aspect of Indian Philosophy. However, unlike some branches of Western Philosophy, Indian Philosophy promotes an optimistic approach to alleviating suffering.